The history of the papacy has been written in many volumes. It has been stated that no figure compares with the pope in prestige and influence. There have been 267 popes since the time of St. Peter allowing for continuous apostolic succession starting with Jesus saying, “You are Peter and on this rock I will build my church…” (Matt 16:16-18).
Who is the pope? The pope is the Bishop of Rome, the head of the College of Bishops, the Vicar of Christ, and the pastor of the universal church on earth. By virtue of his office, he possesses supreme, full and immediate ordinary power in the Church, which he is always able to exercise freely (Canon Law 331). He is the supreme judge of the entire Catholic world either personally or through judges he may delegate. The pope can be judged by no one. He teaches infallibly when he proclaims a definitive act of faith and morals.
There is neither appeal nor recourse against a decree of the pope; however, he cannot act arbitrarily, but he can be confined with certain limits should the usefulness of the Church or the faithful require it (“Lumen Gentium,” 27). His declarations are infallible when he proposes a doctrine as an obligatory object of faith, defines the doctrine, and states his intention.
The pope governs the Church with the Roman Curia composed of a secretariat, congregations, commissions and councils. This form of government is the oldest functioning bureaucracy in the world. The pope can intervene in the affairs of a particular church or diocese in a personal or collegial manner. The authority to dispense from celibacy is reserved to the pope alone. Currently the appointment of bishops rests exclusively with the pope.
If the pope is temporarily or permanently incapacitated – such as by political obstruction, physical or mental illness – no innovations in governance may occur within the universal church. The pope may freely submit and duly manifest his resignation. There is no requirement that his resignation must be accepted.
Historically, popes have been very different personalities. Some were learned, some visionary, some incompetent, some wicked, some canonized, and some were martyrs. Whatever opinion one may hold regarding the teachings and position of the present or past popes, one cannot expect perfection of a pope who agrees with each of the more than 1.2 billion Catholics in the world. Irrespective of one’s opinion, nothing takes away from the role of the pope.
A short summary of a few of the highlights of the papacy over the centuries is of interest, and assists in our understanding of when certain teachings and events evolved. Examples include the Papal Schism of 1378, during which there were three popes: one in Rome; one in Avignon, France; and one in Pisa, Italy. During this time there was an increasing study of Roman law, which led to the doctrine of corporations and its principle, “What touches all ought to be approved by all.”
In the 1400s the pope initiated the Renaissance movement in Rome. The Vatican Library was established, and famous painters, sculptors and architects were commissioned. There was a call for moral, spiritual and institutional reform, and the authority of the papacy was challenged. Martin Luther called for a debate on indulgences in 1516. The reform that arose was the Protestant Revolution. Luther was condemned when he denied papal authority, and he was excommunicated. Henry VIII denied the authority of Rome and made himself the head of the Church of England in 1534. In response the Church was revitalized through a “Counter-Reformation,” which included Pope Paul III’s calling of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The Council of Trent affirmed the validity of scripture and tradition; the Church’s rights to interpret the Bible, and the doctrine of transubstantiation.
The 17th and 18th centuries were difficult for the papacy. Power politics left the pope with less influence, and the Enlightenment posed fundamental intellectual challenges. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic aftermath seized the property of the Church in France and reduced it to poverty. Secularization followed, which included the suppression of religious institutes and radical reorganization of Church structures. The secular state is an enduring feature of modern times.
In 1869-1870, Pope Pius IX (the same pope who defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854) called the First Vatican Council. Its most well-known decision was its definition of papal infallibility.
In the late 19th century, the pope’s temporal authority as head of the Papal States – the Church’s territories throughout Italy from early in Church history – waned as Italy was unified. In 1929 Italy and the Holy See signed the Lateran Treaty, establishing the sovereignty of Vatican City and placing the pope’s position on a new footing.
As the 20th century progressed, popes learned to accommodate democracy. Pope Leo XIII applied traditional Catholic social teaching to industrialization, urban poverty and the growing labor movement across the world. Modernism was also condemned. Interestingly, the greatest reformer of this age was Pope Pius X, who promoted frequent reception of Holy Communion, moved the age of first Holy Communion down to 7 years of age, restored traditional church music, and codified Canon Law.
During the 1920s and 1930s, Pope Pius XI negotiated 18 concordants with states all over Europe. This was the Vatican’s way of dealing with secular states in an attempt to regulate episcopal appointments, education, marriage laws, etc. He denounced Nazism and anti-Semitism. In 1939 the next pope, Pope Pius XII, endured a difficult papacy given the rise of communism as well as Hitler and Nazi Germany’s persecution of the Jews. His allocutions and addresses fill volumes.
After Pope John XXIII was elected, he summoned the Second Vatican Council in 1962. He called for a spirit of love and consideration in dealing with separated brethren. He updated social teaching, condemned greed, and called on wealthy nations to help poor nations. He stressed the right to freely profess religious faith, welcomed worker’s rights, condemned Marxist ideology, advocated for an end to colonialism, and stated that nuclear arms were irrational. Vatican II issued 16 documents including the revision of Canon Law. It is a common belief that the Church did a poor job of post-conciliar catechesis, teaching people what had been changed, and not changed, by the Council.
Pope Paul VI brought the Second Vatican Council to its conclusion in 1965. He opened communication with the Anglicans and the Orthodox. He stressed papal authority and reined in ideas of collegiality. He stopped all discussion of priestly celibacy. He required priests and bishops to retire at age 75. He addressed the United Nations and pleaded for an end to war. In 1968 he wrote “Humanae vitae,” an encyclical on regulating human birth in response to the growing use of contraception and abortion.
In 1978 the Church was in turmoil. The Vatican Bank was a scandal. Priests and nuns left in large numbers. There were battles over the legacy of Vatican II and the rise of “liberation theology” in Latin America. Pope John Paul II was elected, the first non-Italian pope in 400 years. He was a towering figure on the world stage, traveling more than any pope in history and issuing more than a dozen major encyclicals. He played a key role in the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. During his 27-year pontificate he opposed socialism and communism, encouraged evangelization especially among youth, reached out to non-Christians, published a new Catechism, affirmed priestly celibacy, stated that the Church had no authority to ordain women, and personally communicated with political and religious leaders and peoples worldwide. He is contested by some, respected by all, and loved by many.
When Pope Benedict XVI, a scholar, was elected in 2005, he had been serving as head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. His extraordinary homily at Pope John Paul II’s funeral gave him worldwide recognition. This was the time of the scandal of clerical sexual abuse, an issue that affected him deeply. He wrote three encyclicals addressing charity, hope and love, and his other publications were prolific. During his papacy he attempted to improve relations with Muslims, addressed the United Nations, and was the first pope to use social media (Twitter) in seven languages. The impact of his papacy is still to be evaluated. He resigned in 2013, the first to do so without outside pressure since Celestine V in 1294, and he continues to reside in the Vatican.
The election of Pope Francis, the first pope from the Americas and a Jesuit, set a new environment. He is characterized by his humility and support of the world’s poor and marginalized people. In the Church and the world, he accepts ancient challenges and presents new perspectives. He has made his goals child protection, financial transparency, the care of creation, and the reorganization and reform of the Vatican government, specifically the Curia. While he is involved in political diplomacy, he is a model of advocacy for all in need. He addressed the United Nations and the U.S. Congress during his 2015 visit to the United States. His impact on the history of the papacy and the Church, while in process, appears to be highly significant.
One wonders what St. Peter would think of the papacy today?
Mercy Sister Jeanne-Margaret McNally is an authority on canon law and frequent lecturer at universities and dioceses. A graduate of The Catholic University of America with multiple degrees including a doctorate in psychology and a licentiate of canon law (JCL), she is a psychologist for the Tribunal of the Diocese of Charlotte and a judge in the Metropolitan Tribunal of the Archdiocese of Miami.
More online
See a list of every pope in the Church’s history with links to their biographies: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12272b.htm
CNN series ‘Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History’ debuts Sunday, March 11
NEW YORK — “Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History,” a new CNN original series, will debut at 10 p.m. ET Sunday, March 11, featuring international actor Liam Neeson as the narrator.
“Ever since a man, claiming to be the Son of God, was nailed to a wooden cross over 2,000 years ago, the Catholic religion has had a huge and profound influence and impact on our society,” Neeson said. “As an amateur scholar myself, I was delighted to learn more about this by narrating a series that sheds a detailed light on how the popes, past and present, and the Catholic Church came to be a prevailing force through fair means and foul, and along the way inspired some of the world’s greatest works of art.”
“Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History,” from Glass Entertainment Group and Rearrange TV, is a six-part CNN Original Series that goes inside the Vatican to reveal the true power held by popes throughout the ages.
The series explores how 12 apostles became 1.2 billion Catholics today, linking recent news events surrounding the Vatican with their unexpected origins.
The premiere episode, “The Rise of the Pope,” examines the origins of the papacy and how Catholicism, against all odds, spread throughout Europe.
Jon Hirsch, Nancy Glass, Randy Counsman, Amy Entelis and Lizzie Fox serve as executive producers.
The series also features insights and commentary from notable Catholics such as Cardinal Donald Wuerl, the archbishop of Washington, D.C., Bishop Paul Tighe, the Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Culture, and Eamon Duffy, Cambridge University Professor and prolific author on the history of the papacy. Congressman Jeff Fortenberry also is featured prominently in the series, along with veteran Vatican journalist John Thavis.
The series will stream live for subscribers starting on March 11 via CNNgo (at CNN.com/go and via CNNgo apps for Apple TV, Roku, Amazon Fire, Samsung Smart TV and Android TV), and on the CNN mobile apps for iOS and Android. Moreover, the series will be available the day after the broadcast premiere on demand via cable/satellite systems, CNNgo platform and CNN mobile apps.
“Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History” will regularly air Sunday nights at 10 p.m. ET. Learn more: https://www.cnn.com/shows/pope
VATICAN CITY — Only relics that have been certified as authentic can be exposed for veneration by the faithful, said a new Vatican instruction.
Published Dec. 16 in Italian by the Congregation for Saints' Causes, the instruction clarifies and details the canonical procedures to be followed by local bishops in an effort to verify the authenticity of relics and the mortal remains of saints and blesseds, as well as better guarantee a relic's preservation, approve and track its movements, and promote its veneration.
The instruction replaces the appendix, "Canonical Recognition of the Mortal Remains of the Servant of God," included with "Sanctorum Mater," the congregation's "Instruction for Conducting Diocesan or Eparchal Inquiries in the Causes of Saints," released in 2007.
The new instruction outlined the specific procedures and personnel necessary for the canonical recognition of the authenticity of the relics or remains of a saint or anyone on the path to sainthood. It also specified that any action taken regarding the relics or remains must also conform with local government laws and have the consent of the saints' congregation and the person recognized as the deceased's "heir."
In the case of an upcoming canonization or beatification, some small pieces or fragments already separated from the body can be removed and later given to the postulator or vice postulator for placement in a properly sealed reliquary, the instruction said.
But "the dismemberment of the body is not allowed" unless the bishop has obtained permission from the saints' congregation, it said.
The sale or trade of relics remains "absolutely prohibited" as well as exposing them in "profane" or unauthorized locations, it said.
Some of the rules also include:
— Rigorously avoiding any sign of veneration for the remains of a servant of God or venerable before beatification.
— Obtaining written consent from the congregation and every bishop or proprietor that would be involved in the moving of, in transferring the ownership of, or in the pilgrimage of any relics and mortal remains of the saints and blesseds.
— Getting the consent of the saints' congregation, the relevant patriarch and his permanent synod for the alienation or transfer of ownership of relics and precious icons of the Eastern churches.
— Carol Glatz, Catholic News Service